Europe Before World War II: Political and Economic Conditions Europe in the interwar period was a region marked by significant political and economic tensions. Following the end of World War I in 1918, many countries struggled to rebuild their economies. The Great Depression of 1929 exacerbated the situation, hitting Germany particularly hard. The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, imposed massive reparations on Germany, leading to widespread poverty and social unrest. This economic hardship was exploited by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party, who promised to restore Germany’s honor and economy.
Elsewhere in Europe, concerns about German aggression grew. Many countries tried to maintain a balance, but strong nationalist movements began challenging traditional power structures. Italy under Mussolini and Japan in East Asia also pursued aggressive wars of conquest, further destabilizing the global order.
Politically, Europe was divided between democratic states like Britain and France and authoritarian regimes like Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union. This division made it difficult to establish a united front against Hitler’s expansionist policies. When Germany annexed Austria in 1938 and later the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia in 1939, the Western democracies responded with a policy of appeasement, hoping to avoid another devastating war.
Denmark’s Policy of Neutrality After World War I For Denmark, the post-World War I period was one of neutrality and attempts to maintain good relations with both major powers and neighboring countries. The country had limited military strength and widespread belief that diplomacy could ensure peace. This approach was tested in the 1930s as Hitler’s Germany began rearming and demanding more aggressive influence in the region.
Relations With Germany and Other Great Powers in the 1930s Denmark’s relationship with Germany was complex. On one hand, there was close trade cooperation, as Germany was a significant buyer of Danish agricultural goods. On the other, there was growing concern about the rise of Nazism. Denmark sought to balance these positions, resulting in a cautious foreign policy that would soon be tested in the early 1940s.
The Non-Aggression Pact and Strategic Considerations In 1939, Denmark and Germany signed a non-aggression pact meant to secure Denmark’s neutrality. Many Danes hoped this would keep the country out of the impending conflict. However, the reality turned out differently. Hitler had a strategic interest in controlling Scandinavia to secure resources such as Swedish iron ore and to dominate the northern seas. This interest made Denmark a part of Germany’s larger plans for Europe.
The First Signs of War In early 1940, tensions escalated. Germany had already invaded Poland in September 1939, marking the beginning of World War II, and the Western powers prepared for conflict. Denmark, with its strategic location and inability to defend itself effectively, quickly became an obvious target for Hitler’s expansionist plans. This dire situation culminated on April 9, 1940, when Germany launched “Operation Weserübung”—the invasion of Denmark and Norway.
Germany’s Justification for the Invasion (“Operation Weserübung”) The German invasion of Denmark and Norway on April 9, 1940, was part of a larger strategic plan known as “Operation Weserübung.” For Hitler, control of Scandinavia was crucial to secure supply lines for Swedish iron ore, vital for the German war industry. At the same time, Germany sought to prevent the Allies from gaining a foothold in the region, making the invasion a necessity from Hitler’s perspective.
In propaganda materials, the Germans claimed the invasion was a protective action to ensure Denmark and Norway’s neutrality. Behind this facade, however, were clear military objectives that Germany was willing to achieve by force. For Denmark, this was an impossible situation, as its military capacity could not match Germany’s overwhelming strength.
The Danish Government’s Decision Not to Resist Militarily When German troops crossed the border early in the morning of April 9, the Danish government faced a fateful choice. Resistance would almost certainly lead to widespread destruction and loss of life. After brief skirmishes at a few border posts and airstrikes on Copenhagen, the government, led by Prime Minister Thorvald Stauning, decided to capitulate.
This decision was based on the assessment that military resistance would be futile and would only result in unnecessary suffering. Instead, the government chose to cooperate with the Germans in the hope of maintaining some degree of autonomy and sparing the Danish population from the worst consequences of occupation.
Reactions Among the Population and Internationally Reactions among the Danish population were mixed. Many were shocked and angered by the invasion, but there was also an understanding of the government’s decision to avoid an all-out conflict. Internationally, Denmark’s swift capitulation was met with both criticism and sympathy. Some viewed it as necessary to protect the country, while others saw it as undermining resistance to Germany.
For the Germans, Denmark’s quick surrender was a success, allowing them to focus on the more extensive campaign in Norway. For Denmark, April 9, 1940, marked the beginning of five years of occupation that would shape the country’s history and identity for decades to come.
Daily Life in Denmark Under German Control The occupation affected all aspects of Danish daily life. Life under German control was marked by new restrictions, uncertainty, and fear for the future. Danes had to adapt to a new reality where German soldiers patrolled the streets, and political and social tensions increased. For many, maintaining a sense of normalcy became both a challenge and a necessity.
Family Life and Social Conditions The occupation impacted family life in numerous ways. Schooling and leisure activities were disrupted by rationing and the fear of air raids. Children learned to live with soldiers in the streets and blackouts at night, while parents struggled to provide for their households. Social relationships were also affected, as some families engaged in resistance work while others chose to collaborate with the occupying forces.
Rationing, Shortages, and the Black Market One of the most noticeable changes was the introduction of rationing. Food, clothing, and fuel quickly became scarce, and the Danish government implemented ration cards to ensure a somewhat fair distribution. Despite these measures, there often wasn’t enough for everyone. This created a thriving black market, where essential goods were sold at inflated prices. Many families had to get creative, growing their own vegetables and finding alternative ways to obtain necessities.
The Role of the Press and Censorship During the occupation, the Danish press was subjected to strict censorship. News had to be approved by the German occupying forces, making it difficult to obtain reliable information about the war. Many Danes turned to foreign radio stations, such as the BBC, to get a clearer picture of the situation. At the same time, an underground press flourished, distributing illegal newspapers that provided information and encouraged resistance against the occupiers.
Work and Employment Danish businesses and workers were also affected by the occupation. Some companies chose to collaborate with the Germans to ensure their survival, while others resisted pressure from the occupying forces. Agriculture and fishing played a vital role, as Germany relied on supplies from Denmark. Workplace discussions often revolved around how to balance cooperation and resistance without endangering oneself.
The Government’s Cooperation With the German Occupiers Following the capitulation on April 9, 1940, the Danish government pursued a policy of cooperation with the Germans. This policy was seen as a necessity to maintain some degree of self-governance and to protect the Danish population from worse consequences. Cooperation included economic support for Germany, with Danish agricultural and industrial products being exported to the German market.
The government hoped that this policy would strike a balance, allowing Denmark to avoid the most brutal aspects of occupation seen in other countries. Prime Minister Thorvald Stauning and his colleagues argued that cooperation would enable Denmark to retain control over its internal affairs and limit German influence. This included maintaining control over the police and restricting German military operations on Danish soil.
However, even under the collaboration policy, the Germans gradually increased their demands. They required more resources and greater political alignment, pushing the government to its limits. Public criticism grew as it became evident that the collaboration policy could not prevent increasing German dominance.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Collaboration Policy The advantages of the collaboration policy were evident to many. Denmark avoided the massive destruction experienced by other occupied countries, and the government continued to function under German control. Additionally, many Danish lives were likely saved by avoiding a more brutal occupation.
The collaboration policy also allowed Denmark to maintain a degree of economic stability. Agriculture flourished due to exports to Germany, keeping many Danes employed. Furthermore, infrastructure remained intact, enabling Denmark to restore its independence relatively quickly after the war.
On the other hand, the collaboration policy had significant drawbacks. Many viewed it as a moral failure, compromising Denmark’s dignity and freedom. Critics argued that cooperation strengthened Germany by providing crucial resources and stability for its war effort.
This policy also created internal tensions in Denmark. Resistance groups began to emerge, challenging the government’s approach. They believed that collaboration undermined Denmark’s position among the Allies and made it harder to regain credibility after the war. Public opinion became increasingly polarized, with some supporting the government’s pragmatic approach and others finding it unacceptable.
Debate and Criticism Among the Population and in Political Circles In political circles, there was ongoing debate about the legitimacy of the collaboration policy. Some believed it was necessary for the country’s survival, while others argued that it undermined Denmark’s integrity and future position in a post-war world. Conservative and Social Democratic parties generally supported the collaboration policy, while others, including the Communists, were outspoken critics.
Among the population, opinions were also divided. For some, cooperation was a necessary evil to ensure the country’s survival. They pointed out that Denmark avoided the horrors seen in other countries, such as deportations, concentration camps, and widespread destruction. For others, collaboration was a source of shame. Underground newspapers frequently criticized the government for being too accommodating to the Germans.
These tensions culminated in 1943 when resistance grew, leading to strikes and civil unrest that made it impossible for the government to maintain the collaboration policy. This development marked a turning point in the occupation’s history and set the stage for more active resistance against the German occupiers.
The Early Steps Toward Organized Resistance From the beginning of the occupation, small groups of Danes began secretly organizing resistance against the German occupiers. These groups included people from all walks of life—students, workers, intellectuals, and former soldiers. Early actions were modest, such as distributing illegal newspapers and painting anti-German graffiti, but they marked the start of a larger resistance movement.
The first organized resistance took the form of scattered groups without a central leadership. Many focused on informing the public about the progress of the war through illegal publications such as “De Frie Danske.” This was a dangerous activity, as discovery could lead to arrest or deportation. Despite the risks, the number of resistance members grew, and their actions became increasingly coordinated.
Sabotage Actions and Illegal Activities As the occupation dragged on, the resistance movement’s actions became bolder and more offensive. Sabotage targeting German installations and infrastructure became a central strategy. These actions included the destruction of railways, factories, and depots supporting the German war effort.
Groups like Holger Danske and the Hvidsten Group became known for their effective sabotage efforts. Many members were ordinary Danes who voluntarily risked their lives to counter the German occupation. Sabotage actions were not only military in nature but also had a psychological impact, inspiring hope among the population and fostering belief in a future without occupation.
At the same time, networks for secrets and communication between resistance groups and Allied forces grew. These networks played a crucial role in providing intelligence on German movements and plans. Radios hidden in private homes and farms became central to this effort.
The Role of the Freedom Council and Resistance Group Differences In 1943, the Danish Freedom Council was formed to unite the various resistance groups and coordinate their activities. The Freedom Council acted as a shadow government, working with the Allies and organizing more effective resistance.
The resistance movement, however, was far from homogeneous. Groups had different ideologies and goals. Some, like the Communists, saw resistance as part of a broader fight against fascism and capitalism, while others, like national conservatives, focused on Denmark’s freedom and self-determination. Despite these differences, the Freedom Council succeeded in creating some unity and coordinating sabotage actions and other activities.
The Danish resistance movement played an important role in the country’s liberation and contributed to Denmark’s restored status among the Allies after the war. The resistance was not only a fight against occupation but also a battle for the country’s honor and future.
How Antisemitism Manifested in Denmark During the occupation, Denmark became part of the Nazi’s antisemitic policies. Although antisemitism was not widespread in Denmark before the war, German demands for the registration of Jews and antisemitic propaganda were gradually introduced. Many Danes were reluctant to comply with these measures, seeing them as contrary to the country’s core values.
Initially, the Danish government resisted German demands to register and deport Jews, leveraging the collaboration policy to maintain some control over internal affairs. However, the situation became critical in 1943 when the Germans demanded a more aggressive policy against Jews.
October 1943: The Rescue of Danish Jews On October 1, 1943, the Germans launched an operation to arrest and deport Denmark’s Jewish population. However, this plan was leaked to the resistance movement and the Danish public, leading to one of the most remarkable rescue efforts of World War II.
Within days, approximately 7,200 Jews and their families were smuggled to Sweden in small fishing boats and other vessels. This rescue was made possible by the broad cooperation of resistance fighters, fishermen, and ordinary citizens who risked their lives to save their fellow Danes. The operation became a milestone in the history of the Danish resistance and a symbol of solidarity and humanity.
Aftermath and International Reactions The rescue of Danish Jews earned Denmark international recognition for its courageous efforts. The country was seen as an example of how a united population could resist Nazi oppression. After the war, many of the surviving Jews were reunited with their families and returned to Denmark, where they received support and rebuilt their lives.
Although the rescue was a success, it also served as a reminder of the dangers and challenges brought by the occupation. Those who were captured and deported to concentration camps faced terrible suffering, and many never returned. The story of the Danish Jews’ rescue remains a shining example of humanity in a dark time.
The August Uprising of 1943 and the End of the Collaboration Policy In August 1943, widespread frustration with the occupation culminated in major strikes and civil unrest known as the August Uprising. This period marked a turning point in Denmark’s relationship with the German occupiers and led to the end of the collaboration policy.
The unrest began in Odense and quickly spread to other major cities like Aalborg, Esbjerg, and Copenhagen. Workers went on strike, and civilians gathered to demonstrate against the German occupiers and their Danish collaborators. Simultaneously, the resistance movement intensified its sabotage actions, further escalating the situation.
The German response was severe. Troops were deployed to suppress the strikes, and several demonstrators were arrested or killed. Despite this, the Danish government refused to comply with German demands to declare martial law and maintain order. As a result, the government resigned on August 29, 1943, effectively ending the collaboration policy.
Transition to German Military Control With the collaboration policy’s collapse, Denmark came under direct German military control. This shift marked a significant escalation in the nature of the occupation, as the Germans tightened their grip on the country. Danish authorities were reduced to an administrative role, and the Gestapo intensified efforts to hunt resistance members and suppress civilian dissent.
For the Danish population, this transition brought new challenges. German patrols and raids became a common occurrence, and many Danes were arrested and deported to German concentration camps. However, the harsher measures also fueled resistance, prompting more people to join the fight against the occupiers.
Strikes and Civil Disobedience The strikes of August 1943 became a central feature of Denmark’s resistance against the occupation. Workers refused to collaborate with the Germans, using work stoppages as a weapon against the occupiers. The strikes quickly spread and included not only factory workers but also public sector employees such as railway operators and postal workers. These actions disrupted critical infrastructure and sent a strong message that the population would no longer tolerate German control.
Civil disobedience also took many other forms, from small daily acts like refusing to salute German soldiers to larger, coordinated actions such as sabotaging production in factories supplying goods to the Germans. Illegal newspapers encouraged people to participate in resistance efforts and supported the strikes’ calls for freedom and justice.
The Intensification of Resistance Following the August Uprising, resistance against the Germans intensified significantly. Resistance groups like Holger Danske and BOPA began conducting larger and more complex sabotage operations, targeting railways, factories, and depots critical to the German war effort. Simultaneously, networks for illegal communication strengthened, and more Danes joined the resistance movement in response to the Germans’ increasingly brutal tactics.
The August Uprising and the subsequent shift to a resistance policy marked a turning point in Denmark’s occupation history. It became clear that collaboration was no longer viable and that resistance to the Germans had widespread public support. This set the stage for eventual liberation and cemented Denmark’s position among the nations fighting against Nazism.
The Role of the Resistance in Liberation During the spring of 1945, the Allied advance against Germany intensified, and the Danish resistance played a crucial role in weakening the German occupiers. Coordinated sabotage operations targeted railways and communication lines, complicating German efforts to transport troops and supplies.
The resistance also established secret military units, preparing to support the Allies in a potential invasion of Denmark. These units, known as the Danish Brigade, consisted of volunteers trained in Sweden. Although an invasion was ultimately unnecessary, the preparation efforts unified resistance forces and symbolized Denmark’s active participation in the Allied cause.
The German Capitulation and Transition to Freedom On the evening of May 4, 1945, it was announced through BBC broadcasts that German forces in Denmark, the Netherlands, and Northwest Germany had surrendered to the Allies. The news spread rapidly, and Danes took to the streets to celebrate. Candles were lit in windows across the country, symbolizing the end of the blackout and the restoration of freedom.
May 5, 1945, marked Denmark’s official liberation day. While celebrations erupted, the day also brought tensions as remnants of German forces and collaborators faced retaliation from the population and resistance groups. Some areas experienced clashes, but overall, the transition to freedom was relatively peaceful compared to other occupied nations.
The Role of the Freedom Council The Danish Freedom Council took a leading role in managing the transition to peace. Working alongside the Allies, the council coordinated efforts to arrest collaborators and restore order. Resistance groups worked to ensure that revenge attacks on collaborators did not spiral out of control, demonstrating a commitment to justice over vengeance.
Consequences and Reflections The liberation marked the end of five years of German occupation, but it also began a period of reckoning. The collaboration policy and the actions of collaborators were scrutinized, and trials were held to address crimes committed during the occupation. Despite the hardships, Denmark emerged with its infrastructure largely intact and a renewed commitment to democracy and freedom.
The role of the resistance during the occupation and liberation solidified Denmark’s place among the Allied nations. The Danish efforts to save Jewish citizens and resist German control remain key elements of the country’s World War II narrative and legacy.
Dealing With Collaborators and the Legal Aftermath After the war, Denmark faced the complex task of addressing the actions of those who had collaborated with the German occupiers. This period, known as the “legal reckoning,” involved trials and investigations into collaborators’ roles during the occupation.
More than 13,000 individuals were arrested in the months following liberation. Among them were members of Schalburgkorpset, Danish Nazis, and civilians who had informed on resistance members. Trials resulted in various sentences, including death penalties, long prison terms, and fines. While some applauded these measures as necessary for justice, others criticized the process as overly harsh or inconsistent.
Public debates emerged about the nature of collaboration and whether all actions during the occupation warranted punishment. The reckoning was not just legal but also social, as families and communities dealt with the stigma associated with collaboration.
Rehabilitation and Moving Forward By the late 1940s, Denmark began shifting its focus from punishment to reconciliation and rebuilding. Many of those convicted received pardons or reduced sentences, reflecting a broader desire to heal the societal divisions caused by the occupation. This transition marked an effort to unify the nation and rebuild its democratic institutions.
The Treatment of Refugees and German Soldiers Following the war, Denmark housed more than 200,000 German refugees, primarily women, children, and elderly individuals who had fled advancing Soviet forces. These refugees were placed in camps under strict supervision, and their presence sparked public debate about resource allocation and humanitarian responsibilities.
Additionally, German soldiers stationed in Denmark were disarmed and interned before being repatriated. This process was generally peaceful but underscored the challenges of transitioning from occupation to freedom.
The War’s Impact on Danish Society and Identity The experience of German occupation left a lasting imprint on Danish society and national identity. Denmark’s handling of the occupation—from collaboration to resistance—remains a subject of reflection and debate. The country’s efforts to save its Jewish population and its active resistance are sources of pride, while the collaboration policy serves as a reminder of the moral complexities faced during the war.
Educational institutions have incorporated the occupation period into history curricula, ensuring future generations understand the choices and sacrifices made during this time. Memorials and museums commemorate the resistance, the Holocaust, and the broader impact of the war.
The Role of Art, Literature, and Film Art, literature, and film have played crucial roles in shaping the public memory of the occupation. Danish authors and filmmakers have explored themes of resistance, collaboration, and survival, creating works that challenge and deepen the understanding of this period. Films such as “Flammen og Citronen” and novels by authors like Klaus Rifbjerg have brought personal and national stories to life, fostering ongoing engagement with the past.
Denmark’s Post-War International Role The war also influenced Denmark’s approach to international relations. In 1949, Denmark became a founding member of NATO, reflecting a commitment to collective security and a departure from the neutrality policies of the past. The country also took an active role in the United Nations and other international organizations, emphasizing human rights and global cooperation.
The legacy of occupation underscores Denmark’s resilience and ability to reconcile its past. It remains a testament to the challenges of navigating moral and political dilemmas during times of conflict and serves as a foundation for the nation’s commitment to democracy, freedom, and justice.
The War’s Place in Danish Culture and History World War II occupies a central place in Denmark’s national self-understanding. The period of occupation and resistance has prompted ongoing reflection on Denmark’s role during the war—both as a nation that collaborated with the occupying forces and as one that actively resisted. It is remembered as a time of courage and unity but also of difficult moral compromises.
Schools and educational institutions emphasize the lessons of World War II, teaching younger generations about the resistance, the collaboration policy, and the human cost of war. Discussions often extend to universal themes of ethics, choice, and responsibility, providing students with a deeper understanding of the complexities of the time.
Monuments, Films, and Literature Monuments and cultural works play an essential role in preserving the memory of the war. Memorials across Denmark honor fallen resistance fighters, Holocaust victims, and other individuals affected by the occupation. The Mindelunden Memorial Park in Ryvangen, for instance, stands as a powerful reminder of the sacrifices made during the resistance.
Danish literature and film have also been instrumental in keeping the memory of the war alive. Works such as the film “Flammen og Citronen” highlight the resistance’s sacrifices and struggles, while novels and memoirs delve into the personal and national dilemmas faced during the occupation. These cultural artifacts continue to provoke thought and discussion, ensuring the lessons of the war are not forgotten.
Public Debate on Collaboration and Resistance The debate over Denmark’s wartime policies continues to this day. While some argue that the collaboration policy saved lives and preserved the nation’s infrastructure, others view it as a moral failing. The illegal press and resistance efforts are widely celebrated, but they also serve as a counterpoint to the compromises made by the Danish government during the occupation.
Recent studies and public discussions have focused on lesser-known aspects of the war, including the experiences of children, the complexities of mixed Danish-German families, and the nuanced decisions people made to survive. These perspectives broaden the understanding of the war’s impact on Danish society and highlight the varied ways people responded to extraordinary circumstances.
Lessons Learned Denmark’s experiences during World War II have had a profound and lasting influence on its politics and culture. The war underscored the importance of international cooperation, leading Denmark to join the United Nations and NATO as a committed advocate for peace and human rights.
The occupation also emphasized the fragility of freedom and the need to protect democratic values. The actions and sacrifices of resistance members and ordinary citizens during the occupation serve as enduring inspiration and a reminder of the stakes when freedom is threatened.
The memory of World War II remains a vital part of Denmark’s cultural heritage. It is a story of survival, solidarity, and reflection—one that continues to shape the nation’s identity and its aspirations for the future.
National Museum of Denmark, The Museum of Danish Resistance, used with permission.
